Compiled by:
Professor Jim M. Roane, Ph.D.
The Basics of Judaism
Contrary to popular perception among
Christians modern or for that matter ancient Judaism is not just ipsofacto a
precursor to Christianity.
God gave me to present to you the word
of God in its fullness— the mystery that has been kept hidden for ages and
generations, but is now disclosed to the Lord ’s people. To them God has chosen
to make known among the Gentiles the glorious riches of this mystery, which is
Christ in you, the hope of glory. [Colossians 1:25-27]
So, we must erase from our thinking
immediately that Christians and Jews are on the same page when interpreting Old
Testament Scriptures and/or practices, especially as it pertains to the Messiah
and eschatology. The verses and practices are there; however, each of the
religions interpret them differently in the most fundamental ways.
What does Judaism teach about God?
In Judaism, ultimate reality is a
single, all-powerful God. It is this belief that made the Jews unique among
other ancient Semitic peoples and that became the legacy Judaism has passed on
to the entire Western world.
The sacred name of God, as revealed to
Moses in the book of Exodus, is YHWH. Since ancient Hebrew was written without
vowels, we do not know the original pronunciation of this word. The common
pronunciation "Jehovah," however, is incorrect. It is derived from
combining the vowels for Adonai ("Lord ") with the four consonants of
YHWH.
A more "correct"
pronunciation, and that which is used among scholars, is "Yahweh."
The discussion is irrelevant to observant Jews, however, as they do not
pronounce this holiest of names. When the Torah is read aloud, Adonai
("Lord ") is read in its place. This practice is reflected in most
English translations, in which YHWH is rendered "LORD ." Jews also
refer to God as Hashem, "the Name."
The word YHWH is sometimes referred to
as the Tetragrammaton, from the Greek for "four-lettered." It is also
called The Forbidden Name or the Unutterable Name. The prohibition against
pronouncing this name does not originate with the command to not take the Lord
's name in vain, as is sometimes thought.
Although traditionally this only
applies to the Name in Hebrew, some modern Jews also refrain from writing the
word "God," replacing it instead with "G-d." Opinions vary
within Judaism as to the necessity of such a practice.
The nature of YHWH is one of the few
areas of abstract Jewish belief where there are a number of clear-cut ideas
about which there is little dispute or disagreement.
YHWH Exists
The fact of YHWH 's existence is
accepted almost without question. Proof is not needed, and is rarely offered.
The Torah begins by stating "In the beginning, YHWH created..." It does
not tell who YHWH is or how He was created.
In general, Judaism views the
existence of YHWH as a necessary prerequisite for the existence of the
universe. The existence of the universe is sufficient proof of the existence of
G-d.
YHWH is ONE
One of the primary expressions of
Jewish faith, recited twice daily in prayer, is the Shema, which begins
"Hear, Israel: The Lord is our YHWH, The Lord is one." This simple
statement encompasses several different ideas:
There is only one G-d. No other being
participated in the work of creation.
YHWH is a unity. He is a single,
whole, complete indivisible entity. He cannot be divided into parts or
described by attributes. Any attempt to ascribe attributes to YHWH is merely
man's imperfect attempt to understand the infinite.
YHWH is the only being to whom we
should offer praise. The Shema can also be translated as "The Lord is our
YHWH, The Lord alone," meaning that no other is our YHWH, and we should
not pray to any other.
YHWH is the Creator of Everything
Everything in the universe was created
by YHWH and only by G-d. Judaism completely rejects the dualistic notion that
evil was created by Satan or some other deity. All comes from G-d. As Isaiah
said , "I am the Lord, and there is none else. I form the light and create
darkness, I make peace and create evil. I am the Lord, that does all these
things." (Is. 45:6-7).
YHWH is Incorporeal
Although many places in scripture and
Talmud speak of various parts of God’s body (the Hand of YHWH, God’s wings,
etc.) or speak of YHWH in anthropomorphic terms (YHWH walking in the garden of
Eden, YHWH laying tefillin, etc.), Judaism firmly maintains that YHWH has no
body. Any reference to God’s body is simply a figure of speech, a means of
making God’s actions more comprehensible to beings living in a material world.
Much of Rambam's Guide for the Perplexed is devoted to explaining each of these
anthropomorphic references and proving that they should be understood
figuratively.
We are forbidden to represent YHWH in
a physical form. That is considered idolatry. The sin of the Golden Calf
incident was not that the people chose another deity, but that they tried to
represent YHWH in a physical form.
YHWH is Neither Male nor Female
This follows directly from the fact
that YHWH has no physical form. As one rabbi explained it to me, YHWH has no
body, no genitalia, therefore the very idea that YHWH is male or female is
patently absurd. We refer to YHWH using masculine terms simply for
convenience's sake, because Hebrew has no neutral gender; YHWH is no more male
than a table is.
Although we usually speak of YHWH in
masculine terms, there are times when we refer to YHWH using feminine terms.
The Shechinah, the manifestation of God’s presence that fills the universe, is
conceived of in feminine terms, and the word Shechinah is a feminine word.
YHWH is Omnipresent
YHWH is in all places at all times. He
fills the universe and exceeds its scope. He is always near for us to call upon
in need, and He sees all that we do. Closely tied in with this idea is the fact
that YHWH is universal. He is not just the YHWH of the Jews; He is the YHWH of
all nations.
YHWH is Omnipotent
YHWH can do anything. It is said that
the only thing that is beyond His power is the fear of Him; that is, we have
free will, and He cannot compel us to do His will. This belief in God’s
omnipotence has been sorely tested during the many persecutions of Jews, but we
have always maintained that YHWH has a reason for allowing these things, even
if we in our limited perception and understanding cannot see the reason.
YHWH is Omniscient
YHWH knows all things, past, present
and future. He knows our thoughts.
YHWH is Eternal
YHWH transcends time. He has no
beginning and no end. He will always be there to fulfill his promises. When
Moses asked for God’s name, He replied, "Ehyeh asher ehyeh." That
phrase is generally translated as, "I am that I am," but the word
"ehyeh" can be present or future tense, meaning "I am what I
will be" or "I will be what I will be." The ambiguity of the
phrase is often interpreted as a reference to God’s eternal nature.
YHWH is Both Just and Merciful
I have often heard Christians speak of
Judaism as the religion of the strict Law, which no human being is good enough
to fulfill (hence the need for the sacrifice of Jesus). This is a gross
mischaracterization of Jewish belief. Judaism has always maintained that God’s
justice is tempered by mercy, the two qualities perfectly balanced. Of the two
Names of YHWH most commonly used in scripture, one refers to his quality of
justice and the other to his quality of mercy. The two names were used together
in the story of Creation, showing that the world was created with both justice
and mercy.
YHWH is Holy and Perfect
One of the most common names applied
to YHWH in the post-Biblical period is "Ha-Kadosh, Barukh Hu," The
Holy One, Blessed be He.
YHWH is our Father and our King: Avinu
Malkeinu
Judaism maintains that we are all
God’s children. A well-known piece of Jewish liturgy repeatedly describes YHWH
as "Avinu Malkeinu," our Father, our King. The Talmud teaches that
there are three participants in the formation of every human being: the mother
and father, who provide the physical form, and YHWH, who provides the soul, the
personality, and the intelligence. It is said that one of God’s greatest gifts
to humanity is the knowledge that we are His children and created in his image.
The Significance of Names
In Jewish thought, a name is not
merely an arbitrary designation, a random combination of sounds. The name
conveys the nature and essence of the thing named. It represents the history
and reputation of the being named.
This is not as strange or unfamiliar a
concept as it may seem at first glance. In English, we often refer to a
person's reputation as his "good name." When a company is sold, one
thing that may be sold is the company's "good will," that is, the
right to use the company's name. The Hebrew concept of a name is very similar
to these ideas.
An example of this usage occurs in Ex.
3:13-22: Moses asks God what His "name" is. Moses is not asking
"what should I call you;" rather, he is asking "who are you;
what are you like; what have you done." That is clear from God's response.
God replies that He is eternal, that He is the God of our ancestors, that He
has seen our affliction and will redeem us from bondage.
Another example of this usage is the
concepts of chillul Ha-Shem and kiddush Ha-Shem. An act that causes God or
Judaism to come into disrespect or a commandment to be disobeyed is often
referred to as "chillul Ha-Shem," profanation of The Name. Clearly,
we are not talking about a harm done to a word; we are talking about harm to a
reputation. Likewise, any deed that increases the respect accorded to God or
Judaism is referred to as "kiddush Ha-Shem," sanctification of The
Name.
Because a name represents the
reputation of the thing named, a name should be treated with the same respect
as the thing's reputation. For this reason, God's Names, in all of their forms,
are treated with enormous respect and reverence in Judaism.
The Names of God
I have often heard people refer to the
Judeo-Christian God as "the nameless God" to contrast our God with
the ancient pagan gods. I always found this odd, because Judaism clearly
recognizes the existence of a Name for God; in fact, we have many Names for
God.
The most important of God's Names is
the four-letter Name represented by the Hebrew letters Yod-Hei-Vav-Hei (YHVH).
It is often referred to as the Ineffable Name, the Unutterable Name or the
Distinctive Name. Linguistically, it is related to the Hebrew root Hei-Yod-Hei
(to be), and reflects the fact that God's existence is eternal. In scripture,
this Name is used when discussing God's relation with human beings, and when
emphasizing his qualities of lovingkindness and mercy. It is frequently shortened
to Yah (Yod-Hei), Yahu or Yeho (Yod-Hei-Vav), especially when used in
combination with names or phrases, as in Yehoshua (Joshua, meaning "the
Lord is my Salvation"), Eliyahu (Elijah, meaning "my God is the
Lord"), and Halleluyah ("praise the Lord").
The first Name used for God in
scripture is Elohim. In form, the word is a masculine plural of a word that
looks feminine in the singular (Eloha). The same word (or, according to Rambam,
a homonym of it) is used to refer to princes, judges, other gods, and other
powerful beings. This Name is used in scripture when emphasizing God's might,
His creative power, and His attributes of justice and rulership. Variations on
this Name include El, Eloha, Elohai (my God) and Elohaynu (our God).
God is also known as El Shaddai. This
Name is usually translated as "God Almighty," however, the derivation
of the word "Shaddai" is not known. According to some views, it is
derived from the root meaning "to heap benefits." According a
Midrash, it means, "The One who said 'dai'" ("dai" meaning
enough or sufficient) and comes from the fact that when God created the
universe, it expanded until He said "DAI!" (perhaps the first
recorded theory of an expanding universe?). The name Shaddai is the one written
on the mezuzah scroll. Some note that Shaddai is an acronym of Shomer Daltot
Yisrael, Guardian of the Doors of Israel.
Another significant Name of God is
YHVH Tzva'ot. This Name is normally translated as "Lord of Hosts."
The word "tzva'ot" means "hosts" in the sense of a military
grouping or an organized array. The Name refers to God's leadership and
sovereignty. Interestingly, this Name is rarely used in scripture. It never
appears in the Torah (i.e., the first five books). It appears primarily in the
prophetic books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi, as well as
many times in the Psalms.
Writing the Name of God
Jews do not casually write any Name of
God. This practice does not come from the commandment not to take the Lord's
Name in vain, as many suppose. In Jewish thought, that commandment refers
solely to oath-taking, and is a prohibition against swearing by God's Name
falsely or frivolously (the word normally translated as "in vain"
literally means "for falsehood").
Judaism does not prohibit writing the
Name of God per se; it prohibits only erasing or defacing a Name of God.
However, observant Jews avoid writing any Name of God casually because of the
risk that the written Name might later be defaced, obliterated or destroyed
accidentally or by one who does not know better.
The commandment not to erase or deface
the name of God comes from Deut. 12:3. In that passage, the people are
commanded that when they take over the Promised Land, they should destroy all
things related to the idolatrous religions of that region, and should utterly
destroy the names of the local deities. Immediately afterwards, we are
commanded not to do the same to our God. From this, the rabbis inferred that we
are commanded not to destroy any holy thing, and not to erase or deface a Name
of God.
It is worth noting that this
prohibition against erasing or defacing Names of God applies only to Names that
are written in some kind of permanent form. Orthodox rabbis have held that
writing on a computer is not a permanent form, thus it is not a violation to
type God's Name into a computer and then backspace over it or cut and paste it,
or copy and delete files with God's Name in them. However, once you print the
document out, it becomes a permanent form. That is why observant Jews avoid
writing a Name of God online: because there is a risk that someone else will
print it out and deface it. See a 1998 discussion of the issue at The Sanctity
of God's Name, Part 1: Erasing Sacred Texts from a Computer Screen if you're
interested, but be aware that the lengthy article is thick with technical
religious jargon, not always explained.
Normally, we avoid writing the Name by
substituting letters or syllables, for example, writing "G-d" instead
of "God." In addition, the number 15, which would ordinarily be written
in Hebrew as Yod-Hei (10-5), is normally written as Teit-Vav (9-6), because
Yod-Hei is a Name. See Hebrew Alphabet for more information about using letters
as numerals.
Pronouncing the Name of God
Nothing in the Torah prohibits a
person from pronouncing the Name of God. Indeed, it is evident from scripture
that God's Name was pronounced routinely. Many common Hebrew names contain
"Yah" or "Yahu," part of God's four-letter Name. The Name
was pronounced as part of daily services in the Temple.
The Mishnah confirms that there was no
prohibition against pronouncing The Name in ancient times. In fact, the Mishnah
recommends using God's Name as a routine greeting to a fellow Jew. Berakhot
9:5. However, by the time of the Talmud, it was the custom to use substitute
Names for God. Some rabbis asserted that a person who pronounces YHVH according
to its letters (instead of using a substitute) has no place in the World to
Come, and should be put to death. Instead of pronouncing the four-letter Name,
we usually substitute the Name "Adonai," or simply say
"Ha-Shem" (lit. The Name).
Although the prohibition on
pronunciation applies only to the four-letter Name, Jews customarily do not
pronounce any of God's many Names except in prayer or study. The usual practice
is to substitute letters or syllables, so that Adonai becomes Adoshem or
Ha-Shem; Elohaynu and Elohim become Elokaynu and Elokim; Eil becomes Keil, etc.
With the Temple destroyed and the
prohibition on pronouncing The Name outside of the Temple, pronunciation of the
Name fell into disuse. Scholars passed down knowledge of the correct
pronunciation of YHVH for many generations, but eventually the correct
pronunciation was lost, and we no longer know it with any certainty. We do not
know what vowels were used, or even whether the Vav in the Name was a vowel or
a consonant. See Hebrew Alphabet for more information about the difficulties in
pronouncing Hebrew. Some religious scholars suggest that the Name was
pronounced "Yahweh," but others do not find this pronunciation
particularly persuasive. Historian Flavius Josephus, who was born a kohein at a
time when the pronunciation of the Name was still known, said that the name was
four vowels (War of the Jews, Book V, Chapter 5), probably referring to the
fact that each of the four consonants in the name can serve in Hebrew as a
vowel or vowel marker. See Hebrew Alphabet.
Some people render the four-letter
Name as "Jehovah," but this pronunciation is particularly unlikely.
The word "Jehovah" comes from the fact that ancient Jewish texts used
to put the vowels of the Name "Adonai" (the usual substitute for
YHVH) under the consonants of YHVH to remind people not to pronounce YHVH as
written. A sixteenth century German Christian scribe, while transliterating the
Bible into Latin for the Pope, wrote the Name out as it appeared in his texts,
with the consonants of YHVH and the vowels of Adonai, and came up with the word
Jehovah ("J" is pronounced "Y" in German), and the name
stuck.
What does Judaism teach and believe?
Many
of the "Beliefs" sections on Religion Facts begin with an official
list of essential beliefs agreed upon by all orthodox followers of the faith.
But as noted in the introduction Judaism has no such list.
However, the great 12th-century Rabbi Maimonides put
together "13 Articles of Faith" that he believed every Jew ought to
adhere to. These have been widely accepted as a proper expression of the Jewish
faith and they still appear in Jewish prayer books today.
So
while it is not necessary to believe all of these articles to be Jewish (and in
fact many Jews would likely question one or more of the articles)
they serve as a good general summary of religious Judaism.
The 13
Articles of the Jewish Faith proposed by Maimonides are these:
- God exists
- God is one and unique
- God is incorporeal
- God is eternal
- Prayer is to God
only.
- The prophets spoke
truth.
- Moses was the
greatest of the prophets.
- The Written and Oral
Torah were given to Moses.
- There will be no
other Torah.
- God knows the
thoughts and deeds of men.
- God
will reward the good and punish the wicked.
- The Messiah will
come.
- The dead will be
resurrected.
Who is the Messiah?
Many of the world's
religions have hope in a future heroic figure who will rescue the righteous,
judge the wicked, and restore peace to the world (Krishna in Hinduism,
Maitreya in Buddhism and the Second Coming in Christianity). In Judaism, this
figure is the messiah. Christians believe the messiah has come
in the form of Jesus of Nazareth. The Jews emphatically
say this is not true.
The Messianic Age
The messianic age is a period in human
history that will be initiated when the messiah comes. At that time the
righteous dead will be resurrected, but the wicked will not. The messianic age
will be a time of peace and the restoration of the land and organizations of
Israel.
Identity of the Messiah
The concept of the
messiah seems to have developed in later Judaism. The Torah contains no
specific reference to him, though some Jewish scholars have pointed out that it
does speak of the "End of Days," which is the time of the messiah.
The Tanakh gives
several specifications as to who the messiah will be. He will be a descendant
of King David (2 Samuel 7:12-13; Jeremiah 23:5), observant of Jewish
law (Isaiah 11:2-5), a righteous judge (Jeremiah 33:15), and a
great military leader.
Jews do not believe
that the messiah will be divine. A fundamental difference between Judaism and
Christianity is the Jewish conviction that God is so essentially different from
and beyond humanity that he could never become a human.
Moreover, Jews find
no foundation in the scriptures for such a belief about the messiah.
Passages viewed by Christians as indicating a divine messiah (such as the
suffering servant of Isaiah 53) are viewed by Jews as speaking of the people of
Israel. In general, only the following passages are accepted as referring to
the messiah:
- Isaiah 2, 11, 42; 59:20
- Jeremiah 23, 30, 33; 48:47; 49:39
- Ezekiel 38:16
- Hosea 3:4-3:5
- Micah 4
- Zephaniah 3:9
- Zechariah 14:9
- Daniel 10:14
When Will the Messiah Come?
The
"when" of the messiah's arrival is not made clear in the Tanach, and
has been a source of much scholarly speculation. In general, attempts to
predict the exact date are discouraged. Though millennial fervor has never been
as strong in Judaism as it has been in Christian and Islamic movements, there
have been those who either claimed to be the messiah or to know the date of the
messiah's arrival. One notable example of the former is Shabbatai Tzvi, a
17th-century man who claimed to the messiah, then converted to Islam under
threat of death.
A wide variety of
opinions have been given by Jewish scholars as to the circumstances that will
prompt the messiah's arrival. Some say the messiah will come when the world is
especially good; others say when the world has become especially evil. The
biblical clues that are offered suggest the messiah will come after a period of
war and suffering (Ezekiel 38:16).
The Messianic Age
When the messiah
does come, he will inaugurate the messianic age (sometimes called the Olam
Ha-Ba, World to Come). The Tanakh employs the following descriptions about this
period:
- Peace among all nations (Isaiah 2:4;
Micah 4:3)
- Perfect harmony and abundance in
nature (Isaiah 11:6-9) (but some interpret this as an allegory for peace
and prosperity)
- All Jews return from exile to Israel
(Isaiah 11:11-12; Jeremiah 23:8; 30:3; Hosea 3:4-5)
- Universal acceptance of the
Jewish God and Jewish religion (Isaiah 2:3; 11:10; 66:23; Micah 4:2-3;
Zechariah 14:9)
- No sin or evil; all Israel will obey
the commandments (Zephaniah 3:13; Ezekiel 37:24)
- Reinstatement of the Temple (Ezekiel 37:26-27)
Ezekiel 37:24-28
sums up many of these requirements when it proclaims:
And David my servant shall
be king over them; and they shall all have one shepherd. they shall also follow
my judgments and observe my statutes, and do them. And they shall dwell in the
land that I have given to Yaakov my servant, in which your fathers have dwelt
and they shall dwell there, they and their children, and their children's
children forever; and my servant David shall be their prince
forever.
Moreover, I will make a covenant of peace with them, it shall be an everlasting
covenant with them, which I will give them; and I will multiply them
and I will set my sanctuary in the midst of them forevermore. And my tabernacle
shall be with them: and I will be their God and they will be my people. Then
the nations shall know that I am the Lord who sanctifies Israel, when My
sanctuary will be in the midst of them forevermore.[i]
What does Judaism teach about the
afterlife?
Jewish sacred texts and literature
have little to say about what happens after death. This may seem surprising to
non-Jews, since the sacred texts of Christianity and Islam (both of which have
their foundations in Judaism) elaborate rather fully about the afterlife.
But Judaism is much more focused on
actions than beliefs, so it is actually to be expected that its prophets and
sages have not spent as much time on speculations about the world to come as
elaborations on the mitzvot to be performed in this life.
The Torah and Talmud alike focus on
the purpose of earthly life, which is to fulfill one's duties to God and one's
fellow man. Succeeding at this brings reward, failing at it brings punishment.
Whether rewards and punishments continue after death, or whether anything at
all happens after death, is not as important.
Despite the subject's general
exclusion from the Jewish sacred texts, however, Judaism does incorporate views
on the afterlife. Yet unlike the other monotheistic religions, no one view has
ever been officially agreed upon, and there is much room for speculation.
This section will begin with a look at
biblical texts addressing the afterlife, then explore various Jewish views on
subjects such as the resurrection of the dead, judgment, heaven and hell, and
the messianic age.
The Hebrew word Olam Ha-Ba ("the
world to come") is used for both the messianic age (see below) and the
afterlife (see Gan Eden, below). The world to come is important and something
to look forward to. A Mishnah passage says, "This world is like a lobby
before the Olam Ha-Ba. Prepare yourself in the lobby so that you may enter the
banquet hall." The tractate Moed Katan teaches, "This world is only
like a hotel. The world to come is like a home."
Yet it is also emphasized that this
world provides the ability and privilege of doing good works and performing the
mitzvot: "Rabbi Yaakov also used to say, 'Better one hour in repentance
and good deeds in this world than all the life in the world to come. And better
one hour of tranquility of spirit in the world to come than all the life of this
world.'" (Pirkei Avos, Chapters of the Fathers)
The Afterlife in the Torah
For the most part, the Torah describes
the afterlife in vague terms, many of which may simply be figurative ways of
speaking about death as it is observed by the living.
An early common theme is that death
means rejoining one's ancestors. Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, and other
patriarchs are "gathered to their people" after death (see Gen. 25:8,
25:17, 35:29, 49:33; Deut. 42:50; 2 Ki. 22:20). In contrast, the wicked are
"cut off (kareit) from their people" (Gen. 17:14; Ex. 31:14). Other
imagery emphasizes the finality of death: the dead are like dust returning to
dust (Genesis; Ecc. 3:19-20) or water poured out on the ground (2 Samuel
14:14).
Another recurring biblical image of the
afterlife is as a shadowy place called Sheol. It is a place of darkness (Psalm
88:13, Job 10:21, 22) and silence (Psalm 115:17), located in low places
(Numbers 16:30, Ezekiel 31:14, Psalm 88:7, Lamentations 3:55; Jonah 2:7, Job
26:5). In 1 Samuel 2:6, God puts people in She'ol. In Isaiah 14:9-10, the
departed in Sheol rise up to greet leaders who have now been brought low as
they are. The author of Psalm 88 laments his impending death with these words:
- I
am sated with misfortune; I am at the brink of Sheol.
- I
am numbered with those who go down to the Pit;
- I
am a helpless man
- abandoned
among the dead,
- like
bodies lying in the grave
- of
whom You are mindful no more,
- and
who are cut off from Your care.
- You
have put me at the bottom of the Pit,
- in
the darkest places, in the depths.
- (Psalm
88:4-7)
Taken together, these early biblical
descriptions of death seem to indicate that the soul continues to exist in some
way after death, but not consciously. Later in the Torah, the concept of
conscious life after death begins to develop. Daniel 12:2 declares, "And
many of them that sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to
everlasting life and some to reproaches and everlasting abhorrence." Neh.
9:5.
Resurrection of the Dead: Tehiyat
Hameitim
More developed concepts of the
resurrection of the dead and afterlife seem to have entered Judaism under
Hellenistic influence after the Torah was completed. It became one of the
fundamental beliefs in rabbinic Judaism, the intellectual successors of the
Pharisees. The Sadduccees, familiar to New Testament readers as those who
denied the resurrection, were an exception. As seen above, the resurrection of
the dead is one of Maimonides' "13 Articles of Belief," and the
frequently-recited Shemoneh Esrei prayer contains several references to the
resurrection.
How this resurrection might occur has
been a matter of speculation. Rabbi Hiyya ben Joseph suggested that "the
dead will come up through the ground and rise up in Jerusalem... and the
righteous will rise up fully clothed" (Babylonian Talmud, tractate Ketubot
111b). Saadia ben Yosef al-Fayyumi (892-942 C.E.), the head of the academy of
Sura, offered this explanation:
Even fire, which causes things to be
burned so quickly, merely effects the separation of the parts of a thing...causing
the dust part to return to ashes....It does not however, bring about the
annihilation of anything. Nor is it conceivable that anyone should have the
power to annihilate anything to the point where it would vanish completely
except its Creator, who produced it out of nothing.
Since then the matter can be thus
explained, in view of the fact that none of the constituent parts of the human
being who has been devoured could have been annihilated, they must all have
been set aside, wheresoever they may have taken up, whether it be on land or
sea, until such time as they are restored in their entirety. Nor would such
restoration be any more remarkable than their original creation.
Today, most traditional Jewish
movements accept the concept of the resurrection of the dead. A notable
exception is Reform Judaism, which official rejects the doctrine.
Judgment
Traditional Judaism includes belief in
both heaven and hell, as we will see below. How is one's destination decided?
The School of Shammai offered this description:
There will be three groups on the Day
of Judgment: one of thoroughly righteous people, one of thoroughly wicked
people and one of people in between. The first group will be immediately
inscribed for everlasting life; the second group will be doomed in Gehinnom
[Hell], as it says, "And many of them that sleep in the dust of the earth
shall awake, some to everlasting life and some to reproaches and everlasting
abhorrence" [Daniel 12:2], the third will go down to Gehinnom and squeal
and rise again, as it says, "And I will bring the third part through the
fire, and will refine them as silver is refined, and will try them as gold is
tried. They shall call on My name and I will answer them" [Zechariah
13:9]... [Babylonian Talmud, tractate Rosh Hashanah 16b-17a]
The school of Hillel suggested a more
merciful view, in which the middle group are sent directly to Gan Eden (Heaven)
instead of Gehinnom after death. Rabbi Hanina added that all who go down to
Gehinnom will go up again, except adulterers, those who put their fellows to
shame in public, and those who call their fellows by an obnoxious name
[Babylonian Talmud, tractate Baba Metzia 58b].
The Talmud teaches that all Israel
will have a share in Olam Ha-Ba, but makes some notable exceptions:
All Israelites have a share in the
world-to-come... [However], these are they that have no share in the
world-to-come: one who says there is no resurrection of the dead prescribed in
the Torah, and that the Torah is not from Heaven, and an Epicurean. (Sanhedrin
10:1)
General Jewish belief is that one need
not be Jewish to enjoy Heaven. "Moses Maimonides, echoing the Tosefta to
Sanhedrin, maintained that the pious of all the nations of the world have a
portion in the world-to-come [Mishneh Torah, Repentance 3:5]
Heaven: Eden
In Judaism, the eternal destination
for the righteous is Gan Eden (the Garden of Eden). It is generally described
as a place of great joy and peace. Talmudic imagery includes: sitting at golden
banquet tables (Babylonian Talmud, tractate Taanit 25a) or at stools of gold
(Babylonian Talmud, tractate Ketubot 77b), enjoying lavish banquets (Babylonian
Talmud, tractate Baba Batra 75a), or celebrating the Sabbath, enjoying sunshine
and sexual intercourse (Babylonian Talmud, tractate Berachot 57b).
On the other hand, other sages have
offered a more spiritual view of Gad Eden. Rav suggested that there will be
neither eating nor drinking; no procreation of children or business
transactions, no envy or hatred or rivalry; but sitting enthroned, their crowns
on their heads, enjoying the Shechinah [Babylonian Talmud, tractate Berachot
17a (3rd century CE)] . Maimonides agreed, explaining:
In the world to come, there is nothing
corporeal, and no material substance; there are only souls of the righteous
without bodies -- like the ministering angels... The righteous attain to a
knowledge and realization of truth concerning God to which they had not
attained while they were in the murky and lowly body. (Mishneh Torah,
Repentance 8)
Hell: Gehinnom
The Jewish concept of the afterlife
for the wicked is less developed. Known as Gehinnom (Gehenna in Yiddish) or
Sheo'l, it has its foundations in the dark pit described in the Torah (see
above) and an actual place where a pagan cult conducted rituals included
burning children (see the description in II Kings 23:10 and Jeremiah 7:31).
Gehinnom is the postmortem destination
of unrighteous Jews and Gentiles. In one reference, the souls in Gehinnom are
punished for up to 12 months. After the appropriate period of purification, the
righteous continue on to Gan Eden (Rabbi Akiba and Babylonian Talmud, tractate
Eduyot 2:10). The wicked endure the full year of punishment then are either
annihilated ("After 12 months, their body is consumed and their soul is
burned and the wind scatters them under the soles of the feet of the righteous
(Rosh Hashanah 17a)") or continue to be punished.
This belief is the basis for the
Jewish practice of mourning and asking blessings on deceased loved ones for
only 11 months (one would not wish to imply that the departed needed the full
12 months of purification).
